Retrospective 1824

Politics and Society

• Mexico: Adoption of the first Mexican federal constitution, transforming the country into a federal republic after gaining independence a few years earlier.
• United States: 1824 presidential election, known for the "corrupt bargain": no candidate wins an outright electoral majority. The House of Representatives ultimately elects John Quincy Adams as president, despite the popular vote favoring Andrew Jackson.
• France: Charles X succeeds Louis XVIII, the last monarch of the Restoration. Charles X displays absolutist tendencies, raising concerns about the stability of the restored monarchy.

Culture and Arts

• Music: Premiere of Beethoven’s *Symphony No. 9* in Vienna on May 7. This monumental work, integrating Schiller's poem *Ode to Joy*, revolutionizes symphonic music and represents a turning point in the history of classical music.
• Literature: Death of Lord Byron in Greece on April 19, at the age of 36. Byron, an iconic figure of Romanticism, dies while supporting the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire, enhancing his image as an engaged poet.

Conflicts and Revolutions

• Greek War of Independence: Greece continues its fight against the Ottoman Empire. The support of European figures such as Lord Byron helps mobilize Western public opinion in favor of the Greek cause.
• End of the Spanish Empire in America: The Spanish defeat at the Battle of Ayacucho (December 9, 1824) marks the final end of Spanish colonial presence in South America. The victory of the independence forces, led by Sucre, solidifies the independence of countries such as Peru and Bolivia.

Notable Deaths

• Lord Byron: His commitment to Greece and his death on Greek soil symbolize the Romantic ideal of fighting for freedom.
• Louis XVIII: The death of the King of France, succeeded by Charles X, raises concerns among some of the population about a return to a more authoritarian regime.